Graduate Division of Educational Research
Faculty of Education
University of Calgary
Theory/theorist Paper
Submitted to:
Dr. Anni Adams
Professor EDER 689.21
Submitted by:
Dawn Hayward
237521
April 15, 2001
Table
of Contents
Cracked
Pots Provide Beauty Too
Introduction
Leading
Researchers
Rationale
Modeling/Role
Modeling (MRM)
DIR
Model/Floor-time Sessions
Play
Therapy
Course
Connections
Conclusions
Citations
"Cracked
Pots Provide Beauty Too"
For a full two years
this went on daily, with the bearer delivering only one and a half pots full of
water in his master’s house. Of course, the perfect pot was proud of its
accomplishments, perfect to the end for which it was made. But the poor cracked
pot was ashamed of its own imperfection, and miserable that it was able to
accomplish only half of what it had been made to do.
After two years of
what it perceived to be a bitter failure, it spoke to the water bearer one day
by the stream. "I am ashamed of myself, and I want to apologize to
you." "Why?" asked the bearer. "What are you ashamed
of?" "I have been able, for these past two years, to deliver only half
my load because this crack in my side causes water to leak out all the way back
to your masters house. Because of this, you have to do all of this work, and you
don't get full value from your efforts." The pot said. The water bearer
felt sorry for the old cracked pot, and in his compassion he said, "As we
return to the masters house, I want you to notice the beautiful flowers along
the path."
Indeed, as they went
up the hill, the old cracked pot took notice of the sun warming the beautiful
wild flowers on the side of the path, and this cheered it some. But at the end
of the trail, it still felt bad because it had leaked out half its load, and so
again the Pot apologized to the bearer for its failure.
The bearer said to
the pot, "Did you notice that there were flowers only on your side of the
path, but not on the other pots side? That's because I have always known about
your leak, and I took advantage of it. I planted flower seeds on your side of
the path, and every day while we walk back from the stream, you've watered them.
For two years I have been able to pick these beautiful flowers to decorate my
masters table.
“Without you being
just the way you are, he would not have this beauty to grace his house."
Each of us has our own unique characteristics. We're all cracked pots. But if we
will allow it, our differences can be used to grace life's table. In Gods' great
economy, nothing goes to waste. Don't be afraid of individuality. Acknowledge
it, and you too can be the cause of beauty. Know that in weakness we find
strength.
Author Unknown - Folk tale from India
Play gives children the
opportunity to search for and experiment with alternative solutions to their
problems.
Jerome
Singer
As educators, children with special needs affect
our lives every day as we affect theirs. Children
who have illnesses, to which there is not a cure, require understanding,
attention and encouragement from those around them.
A preschool child especially, needs to be surrounded by adults who not
only understand the illness, but who are also knowledgeable in theories which
can help that child adapt to and understand their situation.
It is with this purpose, that I research the learning theories available
that can help educators understand how children learn about and adapt to their
illnesses.
Rationale
The theories proposed for this paper often originate in areas other than education. The study of nursing, psychology, and autism set the foundation for the following three theorists and their formulation of the models. The inclusion of such theories in a document for educators results from a lack of direct research about play and childhood illness. Many of the terms and concepts used in the models are precisely useful for teachers and parents in settings outside of the intended domain and thus their inclusion in this paper.
Modeling/Role-Modeling
(MRM)
MRM is an advanced nursing theory for providing effective, practical patient care. Though it's current practical focus is nursing, its principles apply to many areas of holistic health care (Erickson, para1).
According to the theory, holism is defined as “a belief that people are more than the sum of their parts; that body, mind, emotion and spirit function as one unit, affecting and controlling the parts in dynamic interaction with one another; thus, conscious and unconscious processes are equally important” (Erickson, para6). It is with this definition that MRM is included in a paper for educators and childhood illness. Each day teachers attempt to affect a child’s mind, emotion and spirit. It seems that a holistic nursing theory can assist teachers in helping students in the classroom who are affected by childhood illness.
The theory is based on philosophical beliefs and assumptions about people, environments, health and nursing. MRM was both inductively and deductively derived from practical experiences, empirical studies, and several foundational theories. Such theories include those of Maslow, Erikson, Piaget, Bowlby, Winnicott, Engel, Lindemann, Seyle, Lazarus, and Seligman (Turgay, 1992).
In MRM, "modeling" is used to gain an understanding of the child's world from the child's perspective. "Role-modeling" then uses that understanding to plan interventions that meet the child's perceived needs and will assist the child to achieve holistic health. The basic strategies used to help carry out these processes include, building trust; promoting a positive orientation through nurturing self-esteem and hope; encouraging control; affirming and supporting strengths; and setting mutual goals (Erickson).
When teachers attempt to build trust, a conscious effort must be made to keep promises. Basic physical and safety needs are met while the teacher demonstrates knowledge about the child’s illness and awareness about basic needs that need to be met on a day-to-day basis. In order to build trust it is imperative that the teacher be truthful and trustworthy, use touch and boost esteem needs through affirming comments about strengths.
Children need a sense of hope in their lives. Students who have terminal illnesses will require those around them to protect feelings of optimism by promoting a positive orientation. Teachers must accept these students as worthwhile and facilitate their ability to project themselves into a positive future. For example, making comments about events that might occur next week, etc.
Encouraging a child’s sense of control improves self-esteem in a situation where children may often feel helpless. A child’s perceived control can be promoted by asking what that child needs and how they can be helped. For example, together strategize options for classroom circumstances and allow the child to be an active participant in plan of care. MRM theory states that by simply recognizing the accomplishments of children over their own care can help improve senses of control (Erickson).
Consistent affirmation of strengths will encourage students to persevere and use these skills in the face of adversity. At times when the child may feel despondent and expect others to perform skills that they can do themselves, it is important that the teacher insist on self-performance.
Together the child and teacher set mutual goals in the classroom involving the child in the development of health and educational directed interventions that fit within his or her model of the world. Again, this action will help the child feel a sense of control in the circumstances around them.
In order for teachers to successfully use the basic strategies that define MRM theory it is imperative that they have knowledge about the child’s understanding of his/her place in the classroom environment. Using modeling is proposed as the best way to achieve success in this area.
As MRM has its origins in the medical profession, it is assumed that individuals using the theory’s techniques will have an understanding of the ailment for which the strategies are used. It is in this area that the model must be modified for teachers. Demonstrating knowledge about a child’s illness not only confirms a teacher’s dedication, but also reassures the child that their needs will be met outside of the home and creates a comfortable school environment.
Affiliated-individuation is a concept unique to MRM theory. This notion is based on the belief that all people have an instinctual drive to be accepted and dependent on support systems throughout life, while also maintaining sense of independence and freedom. An understanding of affiliated-individuation is beneficial to teachers who have children in their classes who’s physical, emotional, or cognitive disabilities lessen their ability to be independent. Here, teachers must relay their understanding of the child’s struggle while searching for strategies to increase the amount of independence the child has over his/her life (Turgay, 1992).
DIR
Model/Floor-time Sessions
The Developmental, Individual-Difference, Relationship-Based (D.I.R.) Model addresses a child’s developmental challenges through relationship and affect, focusing on the child’s individual differences, and developmental levels (a child’s ability to stay engaged, express mutual pleasure and attention, to engage in complex problem solving and symbolic play, and to link ideas). The cornerstone of the D.I.R. model is “floor time.”(Greenspan, para 1)
During floor time sessions, the emphasis is on following the child’s lead and playing at the child’s developmental level. The goals of floor time include; encouragement of attention and intimacy, facilitation of two-way communication, support for the use of feelings and ideas, and promotion of logical thought.
Dr. Stanley Greenspan originated his DIR model to assist parents and educators in the field of autism. The floor-time techniques were proposed as methods to help autistic children communicate with those around them. The act of one-on-one interaction at the child’s level allows the opportunity for the child to direct communication onto topics of their own interest. Building relationships with this method can extend outside the study of autism and can help educators and parents communicate with all children who are affected by childhood illness (Coping.Org, para 17).
Relationships are critical to a child's development. Through interactions, a teacher can mobilize a child's emotions in the service of learning. By interacting with a child in ways that capitalize on emotions, teachers can help the child want to learn how to attend to others. Floor-time also encourages children to learn how to engage in dialogue about their feelings in all areas including their illness. Teachers can help students take initiative, to learn about causality and logic, to act to solve problems even before they speak and move into the world of ideas.
The floor-time technique is both extremely simplistic and complicated. Getting onto the floor, at the child’s level, and playing for an extended period of time. Eliminate interruptions and engage in activities of the child’s choice to observe, communicate, and teach. The five steps in floor-time intervention include, observation, approach, following the child’s lead, extending and expanding the child’s play and allowing the child to close the circle of communication.
Teachers can begin the observation step in floor-time by both listening to and watching the child. Facial expressions, tone of voice, gestures, body posture, and word (or lack of words) are all important clues that can help determine how to approach the child. For example, is a child's behavior relaxed or outgoing or withdrawn or uncommunicative? Early cues gathered through observation can assist teachers in planning and implementing strategies later in the process.
While approaching the child, open the circles of communication. Once a child's mood and style have been assessed, the teacher can approach the child with the appropriate words and gestures. Acknowledging the child’s emotional tone can open the circle of communication, then elaborate and build on whatever interests the child at the moment.
After the initial approach, following the child's lead simply means being a supportive play partner who is an "assistant" and allows the child to set the tone, direct the action, and create personal dramas. This enhances the child's self-esteem and ability to be assertive, and gives the child a feeling that they can influence their world. As the teacher supports the child's play, the child benefits from experiencing a sense of warmth, connectedness and being understood
Following the child's lead, extending and expanding play themes involves making supportive comments about the child's play without being intrusive. This helps the student express ideas and defines the direction of the drama. Next, asking questions to stimulate creative thinking keeps the drama going, while helping the child clarify the emotional themes involved.
Children will close the circle of communication when they build on the comments and gestures of others with comments and gestures of their own. One circle flows into another, and many circles may be opened and closed in quick succession during interaction with the child. By building on each other's ideas and gestures, the child begins to appreciate and understand the value of two-way communication.
These techniques exemplify the importance of
knowing the child and following their lead in the direction of understanding
their own circumstances. As
teachers, this understanding is vitally important in the derision of educational
intervention as well as with the planning of the child’s role in the
classroom. Allowing the child
direct control over this planning by listening to and observing, will give the
child a sense of power over their own circumstance
Play
Therapy
Play therapy is a type of mental health or developmental intervention that is designed to help children grow up as happy and well adjusted as possible. It involves the use of play to communicate with children and to help them learn to solve problems. Knowledge of the theories involved with play therapy can be vital to teachers as they strive to grasp the child’s understanding of their situation and to identify areas where the child may require direct interventions to help them cope (VanFleet, web).
Play therapy creates a safe atmosphere where children can express themselves, try new things, learn more about how the world works, learn about social rules and restrictions, and work through their problems. Play therapy gives children an opportunity to explore and open up more than usual. Teachers can use many of the concepts involved in the theory to assist students in their adjustment to illness issues.
According to Landreth, Homeyer, Glover, & Sweeny (1996), play therapy details a number of psychosocial needs for children who are terminally ill Although this paper is not exclusive to such illness, it is important for teachers to be aware of these needs in planning educational interventions for the child and other students in the class. These psychosocial needs are appropriate for any child dealing with illness.
Children require time to be a child and engage in age-appropriate activities. Often the child’s world centers on their illness and dealing with such issues. Through play, children have the opportunity to express themselves and relate to other children their own age.
Children require communication and the opportunity to express fear or anger. The child needs someone they can talk to about fears, joys, angers, or to simply talk about their day. Listening to them is the most important way to help. Accepting that the child does not want to talk about illness is also important. If "big" issues are not discussed, the importance of a non-judgmental and caring presence should never be underestimated.
Although many childhood upsets are healed without the intervention of therapy, play therapy offers children a natural, safe, and non intrusive method to hasten recovery from common distressing events as well as major traumas. Additionally, many children who have not experienced trauma can dramatically enhance their self-esteem through play therapy (Barnes, 1996).
Techniques involved in a clinical play therapy setting can be absorbed and used in an educational environment by teachers. Therapists often take children into a playroom that has a wide range of carefully selected toys. The toys are chosen because they help children express a variety of feelings and problems. The therapist allows the child to pick the toys and how they want to play with them. Paying extremely close attention to the child's actions and feelings, the therapist sometimes engages in imaginary play with the child, and may set limits. In this type of play therapy, called child-centered play therapy, the child's problems or issues usually come out naturally in their play (Landreth et al, 1996)
In an educational setting, play therapy can be
used to do a specific type of activity with a child because it will teach the
child a skill they need to learn or will help the child understand their
situation better. Teachers can have
a class play a game together while helping the children learn about a specific
illness or issue pertinent to class members.
Using the game holds the children's interest more than something more
serious would and actually helps them practice and develop different social
skills more readily.
Many times during my research for this paper issues have related back to the readings and presentations for EDER 689.21. Caine & Caine, Piaget, Erikson, Bandura & Walters, and Vygotsky have many ideas, which are reflected in the area of childhood play in relation to learning.
In their book, Education of the Edge of Possibility, Caine & Caine (1997) state, “we need to think in terms of human possibility, and people are more than biology alone.” (p.102). This statement parallels the ideas involved in MRM theory. Nurses are attempting to focus on the entire individual as opposed to simply their biological characteristics. This endeavor to care for the spirit, mind, and emotional well being of child corresponds to Caine & Caine’s theory of brain-based learning. Here, interactive elements are essential for the expansion of dynamical knowledge. Play is a truly interactive expression for children and is embraced as an excellent measure of understanding and interest.
Piaget’s four developmental stages encompass the first fifteen years of a child’s life. Many of the statements Piaget made in his theory resulted due to the observation of children at play. In what Piaget (1962) described as sensorimotor practice play, infants and toddlers experiment with bodily sensation and motor movements, and with objects and people. At a time when children cannot communicate with language, play can serve a vital tool in assessing a child’s adaptation to illness.
Erik Erikson’s eight psychosocial stages expand upon childhood to include reference to the entire life cycle. Erikson is stated as a theorist whose work affected MRM theory. Based on the theory:
“Task resolution depends on degree of need
satisfaction. Resolution of stage critical tasks lead to growth-promoting
(trust) or growth-impeding (mistrust) residual attributes that affect one's
ability to be fully functional and able to respond in a healthy way to daily
stressors. As one negotiates each age-specific task, he or she gains enduring
character building strengths and attitudes (virtues) such as self-control or
willpower.” (Erickson, para5)
Bandura & Walters’ Social Learning Theory states “people can learn by observing the behaviors of others and the outcomes of those behaviors.” (Rutledge, para1) A major component of the learning theory is modeling. Miller (1993) states “they saw the importance of observational learning: acquiring new skills or information or altering old behaviors simply by watching other children and adults”. This account speaks not only for MRM theory but floor-time as well. The first strategy listed in the floor-time procedure is simply observing the child at play to grasp their interests and feelings before approaching
Vygotsky argued that play influenced development
in three ways; play creates the child’s zone of proximal development,
facilitates the separation of thought from actions and objects, and facilitates
the development of self-regulation. Vygotsky
described play as “an arena in which a child can begin to master her own
behavior” (Leong,
& Bodrova, para 4).
Conclusion
In observing my Goddaughter make connections between her life and those around her, I began to ponder how we, as a family, could help her transition into the knowledge of the severity of her disease. Given her limited language communication skills it is difficult to ascertain if she has of yet realized that her life is different from other children her age. Using play, it has been interesting to note her knowledge of her daily routines; physiotherapy, enzyme taking, breathalyzers etc. During her play, she will often administer these customs to dolls or others around her.
It has been revealing to learn how play can be a vital tool in the classroom to help children understand and deal with illness. Simple techniques of observation and questioning can lead to pertinent discussions about a students feelings and knowledge about situations surrounding her. These skills are useful to all teachers dealing with children who have special needs, whether physical, emotional or psychological.
Citations
Barnes, M. (1996). The Healing Path With Children: The Magic of Play
Therapy. Ottawa: VFB Publishing House.
Caine,
R.N. & Caine, G. (1997) Education on the Edge of Possibility.
Virginia: Association for
Coping.Org.
http://www.coping.org/earlyin/floortm.htm#Stages
Cystic
Fibrosis Foundation. http://www.cf-web.org/what-is-cf.html
Erickson,
H.C. http://mrm.globalmax.com/doc0.htm
Greenspan,
S. http://www.play-to-learn.com/dir_floortime.htm
Landreth,
G.L., Homeyer, L., Glover, G., & Sweeney, D. (1996). Play therapy
interventions with children's problems. Northvale, NJ: Jason Aronson.
Leong,,
D.J. & Bodrova, E. http://www.massey.ac.nz/~i75202/projects/kg/vygo.htm
Miller,
P.H. (1993) Theories of Developmental Psychology . New York: W.H. Freeman and Co.
Piaget, J. (1962). Play, Dreams, and Imitation in
Childhood. New York: Norton.
Rutledge, K. http://teachnet.edb.utexas.edu/~lynda_abbot/Social.html
Turgay,
A. (1992). Helping the child cope with serious physical illness. The
Canadian Journal of Diagnosis, 9(3), 169-182
VanFleet, R. http://play-therapy.com/ideas.htm